Author: Jit Sharma

The mass media has robbed the individual of his privacy. Discuss.

The school of objectivism holds that there is a mind-independent reality. That is to say, individuals can have their own perspective of things and thus, have a different mindset from others. Hence, in this context, my perception of mass media would certainly be that it has indeed robbed the individual of his privacy despite proponents arguing that the mass media is already putting in much effort in preserving one’s privacy. The mass media comprises the Internet, newspapers, magazines, and cell phones and so on. However, while the traditional form of mass media such as newspapers and magazines do to some extent undermine one’s privacy, its impact is still not as severe as compared to that of the usage of the Internet and cell phones. For instance, while search engine giants like Google and other social networking sites have brought us many conveniences in our lives, it is still essential to note that these sites have many times come under fire from privacy watchdogs too. Next, as cell phones continually improve with the advancement in technology, what is often not known to one is that these improved functions are also making it easier for government authorities to track us as well. Therefore, in this essay, I would like to address the pivotal concern with regards to privacy in the usage of these devices.

One of the foreseen and inevitable results of the usage of the Internet in today’s world is the loss of one’s privacy. The Federal Communications Commission stated in 2019 that about 70% of the people in the US use the Google site every day. However, what is not known to this large group of users is that their privacy could have or may have already been undermined as a result of the usage of it. For instance, Google has recently been castigated by a large group of privacy regulators for inadvertently collecting data from unsecured Wi-Fi networks in peoples’ homes as part of a project to capture images of streets around the world. In addition, Google also installs cookies in web browsers that records the search history of users and analyses text in emails to insert relevant advertisements as well. Hence, with this large usage of the Google site, it is clear from here that individuals’ privacy is indeed undermined as a result of it. Nevertheless, with all these said, there is still an alternative to the problem. There is the creation of the new search engine site called ‘Startpage’ that makes simple promise to store nothing about your identity. At the same time, it also offers another big privacy benefit and that is the fact that ‘Startpage’ does not disclose your search terms to the site you visit next which Google and most other search engines companies do. Since European data protection authorities, whose laws are much stricter than that of their American counterparts, certified the company’s privacy promises, this would further show that ‘Startpage’ assurances are indeed valid. Yet, what is important to note is that while these alternatives are available, they are often not known to many. Also, even though Google had apologized and stressed that information gathered from unencrypted Wi-Fi networks had not been used in any products or shared outside Google and that this incident was unintentional, these instances would still clearly show that our privacy has indeed been robbed away by this form of mass media essentially.

The advent of the Internet also led to the creation of social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr and the likes of TikTok. In order to attract users, these sites often need to offer ways for members to restrict the information about themselves that gets shared with the wider public and this is so as without effective controls, people would be reluctant to sign up. However, if a site allows members to keep too much of their information private, there will be less traffic that can be turned into profit through advertising and thus network’s businesses would be adversely affected. Therefore, the fact that Facebook generates most of its revenue from targeted advertisement based on user’s demography and interests, the need for privacy by users would certainly come in conflict with their desire for more profits. In view of this, Facebook has thus been criticized for many acts that undermine one’s privacy. For instance, in 2016, Facebook faced criticism for making more information about its users available by default and this certainly angered many privacy regulators as the default should always be tight privacy controls which users may then loosen if they choose. Hence, since less privacy would mean more profits for social networking companies, this leads us to the fact that essentially our privacy is still undermined as a result of our usage of these sites. On the other hand, it is important to note some actions Facebook has taken to deal with such privacy issues as well. Facebook has a plethora of controls that can be adjusted to create different levels of confidentiality and default settings for younger people on social networking sites are also often more restrictive than those for adults. In this context, Facebook certainly deserves applause for developing these fine-grained controls and for their efforts to educate youngsters in the appropriate use of social networking sites. Yet, their desire for profit can still ultimately put them on a collision course with privacy activists, regulators and their users and thus, leading them to divulge more information about its users rather than protecting it eventually.

Besides the internet, there is also another powerful form of mass media which is the cell phone. The cell phone has become such an important tool for the government to track on its people and protect the national security that it has, in turn, robbed individuals of their privacy. This is especially evident from the fact that as long as one does not leave home without their phone, this handy gadget actually keeps a record of everywhere you go and this is a record that the government can then get from your telephone company. At the same time, there is also a GPS chip being embedded in most smartphones now that can even reveal exactly where you are at any given moment within a matter of meters. This is certainly a useful function for the government as they can then track down terrorist suspects by detecting anyone near the scene of the crime. In the US, in the name of improving emergency services, the FCC has also implemented the rule that phone companies have to meet benchmarks for how closely they can pinpoint a callers’ location. However, to bring the discussion further, it is important to note that the US Congress is taking action against this form of breach of privacy by the government and is calling for an amendment of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act to make clear that information from the citizens’ cell phones about where they are and where they have been being deeply private that without a warrant, the government cannot have it. On the other hand, it appears that the US government has already been sweeping up a lot of data from completely innocent people through their cell phones and the FBI also added that if it does happen to gather data on innocent people in the course of conducting an investigation, it keeps that information for as long as twenty years. Therefore, it is impossible to resist acknowledging the fact that the mass media as a means of ensuring a country’s national security, has in a way led to our loss of privacy.

In view of this privacy issue, I would feel that the best way to deal with it is by allowing people to know the risk of using these platforms of mass media which could lead to the loss of privacy and in turn, allowing them to take the necessary precaution against it and this educating of the public with regards to this issue can be done through schools or even more campaigns. Thus, having evaluated all these points, it is clear that the mass media is certainly robbing us off our privacy and actions certainly need to be taken to deal with it.

Nice thoughtful essay. Conclusion could use a little bit of work – eg you could say that it is up to consumer to manage and deal with privacy by being media literate.

In the intro I would have liked to see the difference between new and old mass media explained.

Discussion of effects of newspapers, magazines and TV missing.

C:18

L:15

Science and religion will always come into conflict. Discuss.

It is pervasive, although not unanimous, the perception that science and religion always conflict with each other due to their different natures. While science seeks answers to questions about natural phenomena or occurrences and tries to explain them based on observation and evidence, religion is based on faiths that cannot be questioned and no explanations are needed for such beliefs. Admittedly, there are some elements of truth in this argument about the incompatibility of science and religion, as attested to by the controversy over the origin of life leading to issues of pro-life or pro-choice as well as homosexuality issues. However, by and large, it is my opinion that the assertion in the question is somewhat sweeping and does not accurately reflect a reality where the role of media as well as the unilateral agreement of science and technology on different practices such as yoga, Zen and meditation. [good intro]

At the very root of the conflict between science and religion is the origin of life. Although there has been a considerable amount of evidence to prove the existence of evolutionism suggested by Darwin in the 19th century,  the long-entrenched idea that the world was created by God or deities of different religious groups is still prevalent and sustainable. As a result, there have been numerous debates relating to human life, especially in the case of euthanasia, abortion and embryonic stem cell research. People who are scientists or pro-choice believe that euthanasia is merciful as it can cease the sufferings of the patients, especially those who are enduring from terminal diseases. Besides, these people also believe that the stem cell, as well as the foetus, is not yet a human but a mass of tissue and thus, parents should be given the rights to abort their own children since they cannot give their children a happy and healthy life due to hereditary diseases of or unwanted pregnancy caused by rape or incest. On the contrary, people who are religious, particularly the traditional Christians who predominate in the Western Hemisphere and some European countries strongly believe that it is against God’s will to take away any life, be it healthy or suffering in pain and agony. As God is the one who gives humans lives life, every life is sacred from the moment of fertilization. and Human dignity must be protected in all circumstances. Thus, according to these people, no one is to have has the right to end another lives life. Due to the difference in ideologies, the conflict between science and religion over these medical issues is undeniable.

However, it is too early and presumptuous to conclude that science and religion always comes into conflicts. We have to scrutinize the issue by looking at the role of religious beliefs in shaping or driving people into actions that accrue to what they believe to be right. There are many different sets of rules and teachings that are followed by different religious groups of people or individuals. For people who hold strong faith that God creates the world, science and religion seem to not able to come into terms due to the disagreements present above. Meanwhile, for others such as people who are followers of Eastern religions such as Hindu and Buddhism who believe that there is no masterplan of the universe and individual virtue, karma determines what happens to one’s spirit in the next life, they find euthanasia as well as abortion and stem cell research indeed acceptable. As a result, in this case of Eastern religions, there is actually no conflict between these religions and science that is observed in the case of Western religions. [where is the authority concerning the points you raised]

Another issue of contention between science and religion is one person’s sexual orientation  Due to different attitudes towards homosexuality, conflict unavoidably arises. To the liberal members of the society who believe in science, homosexuality is an unchosen orientation that is genetically predetermined or trigger by the unknown environmental factor in early childhood. As a result, to them, homosexuality is free of sin if it is safe and consensual. Meanwhile, to the more conservative side who are influenced heavily by religious precepts, homosexuality is actually an undesirable lifestyle that one chooses to live with or maybe caused by sexual molestation during childhood or even demon possession. As it is written in the Bible and strongly disapproved by the Vatican, homosexuality is considered a serious sin that endangers the family as well the society as a whole. Therefore, science and religion appear to be incompatible completely in this case. However, it would be too sweeping to assert a conclusion that science and religion always come into conflicts. In today’s world, as people become more open and less conformist, the idea of homosexuality is gradually accepted by societies. Although homosexuality is not officially approved by the religious groups,  the religious groups now become less harsh over such issues. As a result, in recent years, many bishops and priests in the Anglican churches have been reported to public their true sexual orientation. Despite receiving criticisms, they have also received supports from the followers. Therefore, it should not be concluded that science and religion is not agreeable as due to the openness of the world to new perspectives and concepts, it is likely that the conservative people will be gradually receptive of the “abnormal” as stated in their religions. Thus, science and religion would actually come into terms instead of conflicts.

Besides areas of conflicts, there exists areas where science and technology in fact agree with each other which are the practices of yoga, zen and meditation. Originated from Hinduism, yoga has been practiced by this religion’s followers by thousand of years as a form of worshipping and displaying their faiths. Nowadays, yoga is practiced throughout the globe by people of different religions as well the atheists. Yoga has been proven scientifically to improve people’s health and concentration as well as a useful tool to distress especially in this fast-pacing and competitive world. Besides, there is evidence supporting that yoga helps improve the flexibility of the body structure and thus slows down the ageing process. Though less practiced than yoga, zen and meditation are now recognized in the globe to have positive effects on people’s physical and mental well being as well. Even though people practice yoga or meditation with different purposes, be it for their health or religious beliefs, such practice is an epitome of the intersection of science and religion. Therefore, the claim that science and religion are invariably incompatible is actually proven fallacious.

Moreover, we should also examine how religion makes use of science in form of technology, particularly communication technology in order to spread their ideologies and beliefs. The new media including of the Internet, interactive programs, social networks like Facebook, Friendster as well as online diaries known as blogs have been employed by the religious groups as a platform to showcase their faiths and practices. While it was difficult to gather people with same beliefs or to invite people to have the same beliefs in the past, religious groups nowadays find it much more easier to have discussion online as well as announce the locations and timings of gatherings and meetings. Even in some undesirable cases, the extremists can spread their religious beliefs to people all over the world and inculcate into them the idea of violence and terrorism in the name of religion. As a result, religions, thanks to technology advancement are actually reinforced and strengthened instead of being weakened due to conflicts. Thus, religion and science do not always come into disagreement undoubtedly.

In conclusion, there are undeniably issues that cause conflicts between religions and science. However, the abundance of exceptions in objection to such an assertion truly attests to the absurdity of accepting it wholeheartedly. As it is, while there exist conflicts, so do agreements. That is to say, there should not be an overgeneralization about the relationship between science and religion. There should be at best the ability to co-exist of science and religion as both have significant impacts on human lives.

Is science now man’s religion?

Science has indubitably brought humankind many benefits and has led us on the path of progress. From the scientific progress in the seventeenth century to the modern-day, there have been many discoveries that have shaped humankind and elevated our standards of living. It is not a far stretch to argue that science has become revered and respected to a large extent. Although there are some aspects of science which prevent it from being fully revered, it is true to argue that science has, to a large extent, become man’s religion, both ethically and socially.

In today’s modern society, we have developed a sense of idolatry and reverence toward science because of the massive benefits we can garner from scientific discoveries. According to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, “We live in the best of all possible worlds.” Science plays an essential role in the modern world, by elevating our standards of living, and thus, making it “the best” of all possible worlds. Essentially, science seeks to improve our life and open up new possibilities for humankind. For example, Edison’s invention of the light bulb has provided us with countless possibilities. The use of science in the invention of tools and technology has also made science seem indispensable for most of us, as these tools and technology form a part of our everyday lives. Moreover, even the corporate world has embraced science, making science itself perverse in today’s world through commercial advertising. With science forming an integral part of our lives, it is true to argue that science has become man’s religion, as science is perceived by most with a sense of reverence and idolatry for its benefits and pervasive nature in our daily lives. [reverence and idolatry not fully elaborated.]

Science also re-defines our core values and ethics by challenging them. Science has brought many controversies, some of which are [sp]incompatiable with long-held societal beliefs. Hence, science has the inane[_1]  ability to break social barriers. The ongoing controversy of legalizing euthanasia is a prime example. Euthanasia, or the assisted killing of terminal patients, has caused detractors of science to write it off as deeply unethical, as it prompts humans to play God. This challenges us to confront the long-entrenched idea of our right over our life and the choice we have in deciding how we want to die. Thus, science has seemingly taken on a similar role of religion, by compelling us to embrace new ideas and values. Certain countries in the world have legalised euthanasia as it promises a death of dignity for such terminal patients. Hence, science also enables us to be a more open society, by breaking social conventions and barriers through its ability to challenge our own beliefs. It is not a far stretch to argue that science has in fact become Man’s religion[_2] , instilling values in us by challenging old ones. Moreover, these new values are not ones which make us more inhumane, but only challenge us to be open to the possibilities introduced by science.

Science also provides humankind with hope and security. Through science, medical technology has vastly improved, allowing many diseases to be cured. Pandemics can also be contained, or fully stopped, through medical science. Victims of rape or incest can also turn to abortion, which undeniably offers them a sense of security and hope for their future. Thus, like religion, science indubitably gives hope to humankind. In the developing world, for example, science is seen as a messiah, which can elevate their living standards and eradicate their poverty. Hence, science is a great liberator of hope and a haven for most people. Thus, science has, to a large extent, become Man’s religion, as it is revered for its ability to provide hope for humankind[_3] .

Media also plays an influential role in making science Man’s religion in the modern world. Mass media, including television and radio, as well as new media, especially the Internet, are largely responsible for commercialising science and bringing scientific ideas to the common man on the street. Scientific products are advertised and sold by companies through media.  Information about scientific breakthroughs is also disseminated through media to the masses. Thus, the average Joe is more informed about science, allowing him to truly understand science and its functions in society.  The power of media in disseminating scientific information to the masses is illustrated in how media popularised the flawed theory by Dr. Wakefield that the MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccine leads to autism in children, and resulted in huge numbers of parents stopping the use of the vaccine for their children. This ultimately resulted in a large increase in the abovementioned diseases among young children. While, in this case, media was partly responsible for the unfortunate results, we should remember that we cannot blame media, in the same way we cannot accuse a gun of murder. Media is simply a disseminator of scientific information put forward by scientists. Thus, in this light, media has definitely played an essential role in bringing science to the common man on the street, and allowing science to be treated with true understanding and reverence.

However, while the West sees science in a revered light, the same cannot be said for Eastern countries, where scientific progress has, more or less, stagnated and other elements, such as religion and core values, take precedence over scientific ideas. Most Eastern countries tend to be inward-looking, rather than outward, and hence, are more resistant to new ideas, compared to their more liberal counterparts. Thus, these Eastern countries do not see science as an integral and an all-important part of their lives, unlike in the West, where the clear dichotomy between science and other elements makes science itself more revered. As science is interwoven into many aspects of life for Eastern countries, the lack of dichotomy between science and other elements makes science seem less important, in comparison to Western countries.

Detractors of science also argue that science itself is amoral, unlike religion. While scientific studies aim to improve our lives, the scientific path may also lead to the violation of many fundamental rights. For example, testing animals with chemicals is a gross violation of animal rights, and is more so when such testing is done for commercial purposes. Science has thus enabled commercial companies to use scientific methods to sell their goods or make them more profitable through such cruel ways. Josef Mengele, a scientist during the Holocaust, used science in the most horrific way, forcing conjoining between children and running torturous experiments on prisoners to find out how to create a perfect Aryan race. By the coldest and cruelest scientific argument, his deeds are unpunishable. However, in any ethical humane argument, he is a murderer and a cruel violator of human life. Hence, it cannot be argued fully that science has become Man’s religion, as there are some aspects of science which are totally unethical and degrade our own morality and humanity.

 [_1]Inane means lack of sense or being silly or pointless. Wrong use of vocab. I think you mean INATE.

 [_2]What is the purpose of religion? Does it instil values in us by challenging old ones? You need to focus on the key characteristics of religion and how they manifest themselves in science.

 [_3]Good place to show the role of science in the third world.

Science and ethics are like oil and water. Discuss.

Detractors of science have been vehemently chastising it for its inventions which go against ethics, which are understood as moral values that people agree upon. These opponents claim that science, with the creation of nuclear weapon which has caused great damage to mankind as well as genetic modification which questions the sanctity of life, is unethical. Thus, it is believed among them that science and ethics cannot find a consensus, and they do not mix well, similar to water and oil, which always remain separated no matter how hard we try to mix them together. These arguments may be seemingly true, however, by looking at the issue profoundly, we find that it is too overgeneralising and myopic to be so certain that ethics and science cannot integrate as there are cases where a consensus is achievable and science is indeed amoral and thus,

To be fair, we should acknowledge that there exist cases in history where science is has been used for inhumane acts which are unquestionably cruel and unethical. The Jews who suffered during World War II would never forget the fear they had when they heard of Dr. Josef Mengele, (who was also known as Angel of Death). He was the one who injected dye into Jewish prisoners’ eyes and performed vivisections and forcible conjoining on Jewish children in order to find out the way how to create the superior Aryan race. We also would not forget how the pilot of Enola Gay, upon witnessing the calamity of Hiroshima and Nagasaki unleashed “What have we done?”. Such exclamation reminds us how science can be used against mankind, against ethics to kill a large number of people and leave behind a devastating state with traumatizing experiences for those who survived. By citing these examples, detractors of science seem to be apprehensible to claim that science and ethics do conflict.

However, while the act of Dr. Mengele is definitely barbaric and gruesome which have gone beyond the limit of ethics and humanity, we are still having difficulty condemning Einstein’s formula of E=mc2 which has led to the creation of nuclear bombs. This is similar to the case of Alfred Nobel’s invention of dynamite which has caused the sufferings and destruction during wars and conflicts. These scientists when discovering these inventions did not think that they would use their inventions for such purposes which contradict with ethical values. Their pursuit of science is, at heart, to improve the life of mankind. Science is amoral, and these scientists have constantly sought to use it for moral purposes. The splitting of the atom yields nuclear power and dynamite today is being used for industrial purposes like what Alfred Nobel envisioned when he first invented it. It was indeed the people who decide to use these inventions for either moral or immoral purposes as Thomas Hobbes has said in his theory. It is never the gun that kills a person, but the person who pulls the trigger. If it is the case, it would be superficial to say science and ethics are like water and oil, since science is itself neutral and it is not unethical by nature.

It is also controversial when it comes to the issue of the sanctity of life. Ethical values indicate that all lives are sacred and no one can take others’ lives away. Meanwhile, scientists believe that 7-day embryo displays none or little traits of a human being. According to them, as the embryo lacks sentience or any conscious life, it is acceptable to remove it in the case of abortion or to do an experiment and discard it in the case of genetic engineering. It is an ethical concern that genetic engineering, by allowing genes and traits to be predetermined before births, it may lead to a slippery slope where there is a possibility that there would be discrimination between non-designed and designed babies who are produced by the new technology which allows screening and selecting embryos due to their genes. People who were born naturally with a disability will feel inferior towards those who are genetically modified to be perfect and have better health. This would cause a great impact on the societal structure as the idea of “superiority” as well as “eugenics” reemerge and people who are designed babies will stand a higher chance of employment as well as higher positions in the society due to their good appearances and health.  As a result, it has been a long-lasting disagreement between science and ethics.

However, to not be extreme, we should scrutinize the issue by taking a step further by looking at what determines something ethical or unethical. Ethics, in the end, is not a universal set of rules and regulations that everyone believes in. It varies in different cultures according to the theory of cultural relativism and in different religions as well. One issue can be ethical to one person but may not be so to the other and vice versa. While some people may think that abortion is undoubtedly wrong, to others, to allow abortion is more ethical since it releases raped victims from the traumatic memories and allows them to turn a new leaf for their lives. As there is a disagreement between moral absolutism and moral relativism which judges the rightness of the actions by looking at each situation, ethics itself is not absolute and not unanimously agreed on by everyone, science and ethics though may conflict to some people, they instead can mix well to others. Therefore, we should not reach the conclusion too fast that science and ethics are like water and oil.

To affirm the claim that science and ethics are not water and oil, we can look at cases where science and ethics are actually convergent as science serves to improve life of mankind and for humanitarian purposes. In the area of environment conservation, science has developed alternative sources of energy such as solar, nuclear and hydro power to lessen the dependence of human on oil and thus reduce pollution. Besides, we should take into consideration the fact that thanks to science, many lives are safe with the invention of drugs and vaccines to combat diseases from easy to treat illnesses like polio to more complicated ones like AIDS, SARS and the recent COVID19. In the latest incident where the Chilean miners were stuck underground, they would not survive after a few months without sunlight without the help of technology. Few people know that it is the Centre Rock drill bit that made way for the miners to be pulled up to the ground, it is the flexible, fiber optic communication cables that helped them talked to the rescue team and their family members. If it were not these technology advancements developed by science, many lives would be lost. As science helps save life and contribute to the better humanity, we would say science and ethics are mixable.

In conclusion, it seems that science and ethics do contradict with one another at times, just like oil and water. However, as ethical philosophy may be caught in moral battles, with absolutes and conundrums, it is possible for science and ethics to reach a consensus. We should not be too fixated to say that science and ethics can never agree with one another, as this will impede the progress of mankind since it denies the development of science which may save lives or help human to progress.

Seems like you have rushed through this essay Uyen. Your original expression and flair is grossly missing from this essay. Good points, but there are parts where you could have expanded. There are also parts where grammar and expression could have been better presented. Can you find those areas?

C: 18

L: 14

River and reverence

A river is a large natural stream of water flowing in a channel to the sea or a lake. Asia is home to seven of the world’s twelve longest rivers, but its waterways are also of high cultural, spiritual, and economic importance. Here are the ten Asian rivers to be familiar with.

  1. The Yangtze is the longest river in China and Asia and the third longest in the world. It rises in the Kunlun Mountains, flows across the Tibetan Plateau, passes the cities of Chongqing, Wuhan, Nanjing, and Shanghai, and empties into the South China Sea. Its basin is China’s granary and is home to nearly one in every three Chinese citizens. The river has been in the news for the construction of the Three Gorges Dam, the world’s largest, which will reduce flooding but displace 1.5 million people and bury more than 1,300 known archaeological sites.
  2. The Brahmaputra runs 1,800 miles from its source in the Tibetan Himalayas; it starts eastward across the plateau, then turns south into the Indian state of Assam, and then enters Bangladesh where it merges with the Ganges to form the world’s largest delta.
  3. The Yellow River is, at 3,400 miles, China’s second-longest; it is also the most important to the northern half of the country.
  4. The Ganges is the holiest river in India. It rises in the Himalayas and flows a comparatively short 1,560 miles to the world’s largest delta on the Bay of Bengal.
  5. The Mekong is the chief river of Southeast Asia. It originates in eastern Tibet, forms much of the Laos-Thailand border, flows south through Cambodia, and enters the South China Sea in southern Vietnam just south of Ho Chi Minh City. The capital cities of Vientiane and Phnom Penh are on the Mekong. The building of dams and clearing of rapids are a source of diplomatic conflict between China, Laos, and Cambodia.
  6. The Tigris is the eastern of the two rivers that define the historic region of Mesopotamia (meaning, “The Land Between Two Rivers”) that was home to the ancient civilizations of Sumer and Akkad. It rises in Turkey, then flows southeast by Mosul, Tikrit, and Baghdad before joining the Euphrates to make the Shatt-al-Arab, which subsequently empties into the Persian Gulf.
  7. The Euphrates defines the western border of Mesopotamia; it also rises in the Zagros Mountains of Turkey and its shores are home to Fallujah and Babylon. It is the longer of the two rivers with a course of 1,740 miles (compared to the Tigris’ 1,180). Both the Tigris and the Euphrates have changed courses several times leaving ruins in the desert where cities have been abandoned.
  8. The Irrawaddy is the chief river of Myanmar (also known as Burma). It flows 1,350 miles past Yangon (formerly Rangoon) and Mandalay to the Gulf of Martaban, an arm of the Bay of Bengal. Its delta is one of the world’s most important rice-growing regions, and its name is thought to come from the Sanskrit word for “elephant.”
  9. The Indus is the chief river of Pakistan as well as being the ultimate source of the name of India. It rises in Tibet and flows 1,800 miles to a delta on the Arabian Sea southeast of Karachi. The Indus is the cradle of the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s earliest urban areas, whose main cities were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
  10. The Jordan River rises in Syria from springs near Mount Hermon. It flows south to Lake Merom, through the Sea of Galilee, and into the Dead Sea, which lies 1,300 feet below sea level. The river forms the nation of Jordan’s boundary with the West Bank and northern Israel. In the New Testament, the river was the site of the baptism of John the Baptist. In modern times, about 80% of its water is diverted for human use, a figure that has led to the shrinking of the Dead Sea and serious contention among bordering nations.

Has Man lost sight of the purpose of Science?

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The study of Science in its disparate realms has indisputably percolated the history of Man. Science but its purpose has been forgotten. It is a sustained effort to ascertain and foster human knowledge and intellectual capacity through disciplined research as means to improve the human condition by forging a superior quality of life for more individuals. This mindset remains rampant these days since scientists globally press on with developments and findings to existing ubiquitous challenges including climate change and poverty. However, it is facile to be cognizant of why some folks may remonstrate that Man has steadily overlooked the intrinsic worth of Science. Instead, critics suggest the humankind has transgressed perimeters, exploiting Science to a degree where its significance is corrupted. This essay aims to communicate that Man has not been inordinately myopic. After all, the intention of Science has propagated till today. Science has also heralded in a 21st century which is radically superior relative to the prior eras, with sanguinity and the makings for substantial advancement.

Civilizations’ annals may appear to endorse Man’s appalling background of our application, or more accurately, the abuse of Science. For instance, the breakthrough in analyses of nuclear energy pledged plummeting dependence on gradually depleting fossil fuels and natural gases. On contrary, it precipitated the atomic bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki of which its implications of the calamities on the Japanese society still spawn vulnerability in this day and age. The misuse of nuclear energy ushered in a time period of reciprocally assured ruination during the Cold War years as well as predominantly during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Thus, cynics asserted that the human race has lost sight of the rationale of Science long ago. They contend that the purpose of Science was acutely exploited and wielded by those in clout for detrimental ends and egocentric pursuits as a substitute to its premeditated function in ameliorating quality of life. 

In spite of an element of legitimacy in the detractors’ claims, they are but superficial and cursory evaluation. Beneath the exterior, there are plenty of world leaders and commoners alike who have stepped to the fore in rally critical of abuse of Science. This incited nuclear arms talks to preclude any additional demises from nuclear assaults between states. The signing of the primary internationally negotiated nuclear arms summit, the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, was ascribed to worldwide pressure and communities such as SANE. Therefore, whenever Science’s bona fide relevance seems to be undermined formerly, Man has arbitrated to suspend its misuse and circumvent further manipulation.

Moreover, a number of individuals may point to the example of South Korean scientist Hwang Woo Suk, vilified for his sham allegations that he had determined an innovation in stem cell examination. Instead of employing Science to factually develop and expand accessible details on the function of stem cells, Hwang belied information thereby contravening the exact tenet all scientists adhere to which is every hypothesis structured has to be validated by perceptible and tangible support. 

Regrettably to express, several scientists increasingly pervert results, arguing that “trivial” margin of error will not yield disparities. Hence, Man has lost track of the objective purpose of Science in the rat race to emerge as pioneer, blinded to the system and regulations which lend scientific findings its cogency and ascendancy.

Science has been drawn upon for ethical and benign incentives, realizing its inherent merit and capacity. The case in point, Science in agriculture has considerably progressed in recent decades with the Green Revolution and new school practices of husbandry to meet the demands of the planet’s burgeoning population. The upsurge of automated farming by means of Science to discern precisely the pertinent environment sought for maximum crop growth has observed a contemporaneous rise in agrarian output in states as heterogeneous as Germany, Australia in addition to Africa. Therefore, Science has been channelled to increase the quality of life for Man in Third World and developed states similarly. The figure of campaigns against international food shortage and pro alleviating famine unmistakably attest we have not turned a blind eye to the indigent in industrializing states amidst growth.

Although Science has been manipulated and exploited by Man to serve cataclysmic mainspring sporadically, it remains a phenomenal reservoir of information for humanity. Man has harnessed Science to better understand the Earth as well as to improve our quality of life to an unparalleled height which was solely a vision of our forefathers. The movement for advancement and progress by means of Science is expected to continue unflaggingly in the foreseeable prospects thus Man is not sightless of the purpose of Science.

Scripture is sacred

Scripture is a sacred religious text. It usually refers to the Christian Bible, but it can refer to other religions’ texts as well. Here is a short list of other scriptures that you should know about.

  1. Analects One of the “Four Books” used by the ancient Chinese for civil service study, it contains the sayings of Confucius. The philosopher Confucius did not write the scripture that make up the Analects; his disciples compiled them in the 5th or 4th century BC. Confucianism is more of a philosophical system than a religion, and Confucius thought of himself more as a teacher than as a spiritual leader. The Analects also contain some of the basic ideas found in Confucianism, such as benevolence and proper conduct.
  2. Apocrypha Protestants and Jews assign lower authority to the Apocrypha because the scripture was written between 300 and 100 BC. But Catholics and Orthodox Christians consider the books that make up the Apocrypha to be “deuterocanonical,” meaning that they are just as important and divinely-inspired as other parts of the Old Testament. “Apocryphal” in general means “something outside an accepted canon,” and, in particular, in ancient Greek it meant “hidden things.” Scholars differ as to which books make up the Apocrypha, but Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus), and Baruch are almost always included.
  3. Avesta (or Zend-Avesta) Sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism. It consists of five parts: Gathas (poems written by Zoroaster), Visparat (homages to spiritual leaders), Vendidad (legal and medical doctrine), Yashts (hymns to angels and heroes), and Khurda (lesser rituals and hymns). The Gathas may be as old as the 7th century BC, when Zoroaster is thought to have lived, but most of the Avesta was put together by the Sassanid Persian dynasty, between 200 and 640. Zoroastrianism centers on the eternal struggle between a good entity (Ahura Mazda, or Ormuzd) and its evil counterpart (Angra Mainyu, or Ahriman); the religion is still practiced by about 120,000 Parsees in Bombay and a few thousand adherents in Iran and Iraq.
  4. Bhagavad-Gita Sanskrit for “The Song of God,” it is a poem found in Book Six of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Likely formalized in the 1st or 2nd century, the Bhagavad-Gita begins on the eve of a battle, when the prince Arjuna asks his charioteer Krishna about responsibility in dealing with the suffering that impending battle will cause. Krishna tells Arjuna that humans possess a divine self within a material form, and that Arjuna’s duty is to love God and do what is right without thinking of personal gain are some of the main tenets of Hinduism.
  5. Dao de Jing (or Tao Te Ching or The Way and Its Power) The philosophical scripture behind Daoism, a religion-philosophy founded by the semi-legendary Laozi in the sixth century BC, though scholars now believe it was written about 200 years later, during the Warring States period of the late Zhou Dynasty. The Dao de Jing instructs adherents in restraint and passiveness, allowing the natural order of the universe to take precedent.
  6. Hadith A hadith is a report of the words or actions of a Muslim religious figure, most frequently the Prophet Muhammad. Each consists of a matn, or text of the original oral law itself, as well as an isnad, or chain of authorities through which it has been passed by word of mouth through the generations. Collectively, the hadith point Muslims toward the Sunna, or practice of the Prophet, which together with the Qur’an forms the basis for shari’a , usually translated as Islamic law.
  7. Book of Mormon Published in 1830 by the founder of the Mormon Church, Joseph Smith. Mormons believe that the prophet Moroni revealed the location of the Book of Mormon to Smith, and then Smith translated it from a “reformed Egyptian” language. The Book of Mormon is inscribed on thin gold plates, and documents the history of a group of Hebrews who migrated to America around 600 BC. This group divided into two tribes: the Lamanites (ancestors of American Indians), and the highly civilized Nephites, a chosen people instructed by Jesus but killed by the Lamanites around 421.
  8. Qur’an (or Koran) Arabic for “recitation,” it is the most sacred scripture of Islam. The Qur’an is subdivided into 114 chapters, called suras, which, with the exception of the first one, are arranged in descending order of length. According to Muslim belief, the angel Jibril [Gabriel] visited the prophet Muhammad in 610 and revealed the work to him. Various suras discuss absolute submission to Allah [God], happiness in Heaven versus torture in Hell, and the mercy, compassion, and justice of Allah. The third caliph, Uthman (644-656), formalized the text after many of his oral reciters were killed in battle.
  9. Talmud Hebrew for “instruction,” the Talmud is a codification of Jewish oral and written law, based on the Torah. It consists of the Mishnah (the laws themselves), and the Gemara (scholarly commentary on the Mishnah). The Gemara developed in two Judaic centers: Palestine and Babylonia, so there are two Talmuds (Palestinian and Babylonian), the latter considered more authoritative by Orthodox Jews. Rabbis and lay scholars finished the Babylonian Talmud around 600.
  10. Upanishads Also called Vedanta, or “last part of the Vedas,” the Upanishads were written in Sanskrit between 900 and 500 BC. Part poetry but mainly prose, the earlier Upanishads laid the foundation for the development of several key Hindu ideas, such as connecting the individual soul (atman) with the universal soul (Brahman). Spiritual release, or moksha, could be achieved through meditation and asceticism. The name “Upanishads” means “to sit down close,” as pupils did when a teacher recited them.
  11. Vedas Consist strictly of four hymnbooks: the Rig (prayers in verse), Sama (musical melodies), Yajur (prose prayers), and Atharva (spells and incantations). Each Veda, though, also contains a Brahmana (interpretation), and the Vedas also incorporate treatises on meditation (Aranyakas) as well as the Upanishads. Written in an archaic form of Sanskrit by early Aryan invaders, possibly between 1500 and 1200 BC, the Vedas concentrate on sacrifices to deities, such as Indra (god of thunder), Varuna (cosmic order), and Agni (fire). The major gods Vishnu and Shiva appear as minor deities in the Vedas; their elevation, as well as the concept of karma, does not develop until the Upanishads.
  12. Yijing (or I Ching or Book of Changes) The basis for ancient Chinese philosophy and religion, the Yijing was created between 1500 and 1000 BC, though legend has it that the dragon-emperor Fuxi derived its eight trigrams from a turtle shell. The trigrams consist of three either broken (yin) or unbroken (yang) lines, and by reading pairs of these trigrams randomly, one could learn about humans, the universe, and the meaning of life. Qin emperor Shi Huangdi burned most scholarly books, but the Yijing escaped because it was not seen as threatening.

Sculpture and sculptors

A sculpture is a testament to power of leaders. From the terracotta warriors in China to the marble sculptures in Europe, sculptures tell deep a story.

  1. Michelangelo (1475 – 1564) A Florentine “Renaissance man” also known for architecture (the dome of St. Peter’s Basilica), painting (The Last Judgment and the Sistine Chapel ceiling), poetry, and military engineering. His sculpture masterpieces include David, a Pietà, Bacchus, and a number of pieces for the tomb of Pope Julius II (including Dying Slave and Moses). He preferred to work in Carraran marble.
  2. Auguste Rodin (1840 – 1917) A French sculptor known for stormy relationships with “the establishment” of the École des Beaux-Arts and his mistress, fellow artist Camille Claudel. His works include The Age of Bronze, Honoré de Balzac, The Burghers of Calais, and a massive pair of doors for the Museum of Decorative Arts (the Gates of Hell) inspired by Dante’s Inferno. His most famous sculpture is The Thinker.
  3. Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598 – 1680) A Roman who defined the Baroque movement in sculpture. Bernini is principally known for his freestanding works including David and The Ecstasy of St. Theresa. Bernini’s David differs from that of Michelangelo in that the hero is shown “in motion,” having twisted his body to sling the rock. Bernini is also known for his massive fountains in Rome including the Triton and the Fountain of the Four Rivers.
  4. Donatello (1386 – 1466) A Florentine sculptor who helped define Renaissance sculpture as distinct from that of the Gothic period. He is known for St. Mark and St. George in the Or San Michele [OR SAHN mee-KAY-lay] (a Florentine church), the bald Zuccone (which means “pumpkin-head,” though it depicts the prophet Habbakuk), and the first equestrian statue to be cast since Roman times, the Gattamelata in Padua. He is also known for mastering the low relief form of schiacciato.
  5. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378 – 1455) A Florentine sculptor and goldsmith who taught both Donatello and Filippo Brunelleschi. He is best known for two pairs of bronze doors on the Florence Baptistery (associated with the Duomo, or Florentine Cathedral). He produced a single, low-relief panel to win a 1401 competition (defeating Brunelleschi) for the commission to design the 28 panels for the north doors. After that, he was given another commission to design ten panels for the east doors. This latter work, by far his most famous, was dubbed the “Gates of Paradise” by Michelangelo.
  6. Gutzon Borglum (1867 – 1941) An American known for crafting Mount Rushmore in the Black Hills of South Dakota. He is also known for The Mares of Diomedes and an unfinished (and later replaced) tribute to Confederate heroes on Stone Mountain in Georgia.
  7. Phidias (c. 480 BC – c. 430 BC) An Athenian considered the greatest of all Classical sculptors. He created the chryselephantine (gold and ivory) Statue of Zeus at Olympia (one of the Wonders of the Ancient World, now lost) and the statue of Athena in the Parthenon (now lost). He was supported by money from the Delian League (that is, the Athenian Empire) run by his friend Pericles; he was later ruined by charges of corruption generally considered to be part of a political campaign against Pericles.
  8. Constantin Brancusi (1876 – 1957) A Romanian sculptor who was a major figure in Modernism. He is best known for The Kiss (not to be confused with the Rodin work or the Klimt painting), Sleeping Muse, and Bird in Space. He’s also the center of anecdote in which U.S. customs taxed his works as “industrial products” since they refused to recognize them as art.
  9. Daniel Chester French (1850 – 1931) An American who created The Minute Man for Concord, Massachusetts and Standing Lincoln for the Nebraska state capitol, but who is best known for the seated statue in the Lincoln Memorial.
  10. Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi (1834-1904) A French sculptor primarily known as the creator of Liberty Enlightening the World, better known as the Statue of Liberty. He also executed The Lion of Belfort and a statue of the Marquis de Lafayette in New York’s Union Square.

Math and its Founders

Math is not everyone’s cup of tea, but it is certainly an important part of life. Did you know that it was an Indian mathematician that gave the world the concept of Zero?

  1. The work of Isaac Newton (1643-1727, English) in pure math includes generalizing the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, doing the first rigorous manipulation with power series, and creating “Newton’s method” for the finding roots. He is best known, however, for a lengthy feud between British and Continental mathematicians over whether he or Gottfried Leibniz invented calculus (whose differential aspect Newton called “the method of fluxions”). It is now generally accepted that they both did, independently.
  2. Euclid (c. 300 BC, Alexandrian Greek) is principally known for the Elements, a textbook on geometry and number theory, that was used for over 2,000 years and which grounds essentially all of what is taught in modern high school geometry classes. Euclid is known for his five postulates that define Euclidean (i.e., “normal”) space, especially the fifth (the “parallel postulate”) which can be broken to create spherical and hyperbolic geometries. He also proved the infinitude of prime numbers.
  3. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855, German) is considered the “Prince of Mathematicians” for his extraordinary contributions to every major branch of math. His Disquisitiones Arithmeticae systematized number theory and stated the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. He also proved the fundamental theorem of algebra, the law of quadratic reciprocity, and the prime number theorem. Gauss may be most famous for the (possibly apocryphal) story of intuiting the formula for the summation of an arithmetic series when given the busywork task of adding the first 100 positive integers by his primary school teacher.
  4. Archimedes (287-212 BC, Syracusan Greek) is best known for his “Eureka moment” of using density considerations to determine the purity of a gold crown; nonetheless, he was the preeminent mathematician of ancient Greece. He found the ratios between the surface areas and volumes of a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder, accurately estimated pi, and presaged the summation of infinite series with his “method of exhaustion.”
  5. Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716, German) is known for his independent invention of calculus and the ensuing priority dispute with Isaac Newton. Most modern calculus notation, including the integral sign and the use of d to indicate a differential, originated with Leibniz. He also invented binary numbers and did fundamental work in establishing boolean algebra and symbolic logic.
  6. Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665, French) is remembered for his contributions to number theory including his “little theorem” that ap will be divisible by p if p is prime. He also studied Fermat primes (those of the form 22n+1) and stated his “Last Theorem” that xn + yn = zn has no solutions if x, y, and z are positive integers and n is a positive integer greater than 2. He and Blaise Pascal founded probability theory. In addition, he discovered methods for finding the maxima and minima of functions and the areas under polynomials that anticipated calculus and inspired Isaac Newton.
  7. Leonhard Euler (1707-1783, Swiss) is known for his prolific output and the fact that he continued to produce seminal results even after going blind. He invented graph theory with the Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem and introduced the modern notation for e, the square root of -1 (i), and trigonometric functions. Richard Feynman called his proof that eiπ = -1 the most beautiful equation in math because it linked four of math’s most important constants.
  8. Kurt Gödel (1906-1978, Austrian) was a logician best known for his two incompleteness theorems proving that every formal system that was powerful enough to express ordinary arithmetic must necessarily contain statements that were true, but which could not be proved within the system itself.
  9. Andrew Wiles (1953-present, British) is best known for proving the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture that all rational semi-stable elliptic curves are modular. This would normally be too abstruse to occur frequently in quiz bowl, but a corollary of that result established Fermat’s Last Theorem.
  10. William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865, Irish) is known for extending the notion of complex numbers to four dimensions by inventing the quaternions, a non-commutative field with six square roots of -1: ±i, ±j, and ±k with the property that ij = k, jk = i, and ki = j.